California has made important strides in class size reduction, higher academic standards, greater accountability, and improved teacher preparation. The important missing link in these initiatives to improve student learning is the need for more school counselors and other student support services, such as school psychologists, school social workers, and school nurses. Traditionally, California students' access to counselors varies by grade level, and 29 percent of California school districts have no counseling programs at all. When counseling programs exist, counselors are often asked to add administrative duties such as testing, supervising, and class scheduling. The ratio of students per counselor in this state averages 945 to 1, compared to the national average of 477 to 1, ranking California last in the nation.
School counselors provide counseling programs in three domains: academic, career, and personal/social. Their services and programs help students resolve emotional, social, or behavioral problems and help them develop a clearer focus or sense of direction. Effective counseling programs are important to the school climate and a crucial element in improving student achievement.
Following is a collection of sources that address the effectiveness of school counseling and other student support services, including their contribution to the personal and academic success of students.
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Reviews of the research on school counseling show that the services of school counselors have a positive effect on children.
Borders, L.D., & Drury, S.M. (1992). Comprehensive school counseling programs: A review for policymakers and practitioners. Journal of Counseling and Development, 70, 487-498.
Gerler, E.R. (1985). Elementary school counseling research and the classroom learning environment. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 20, 39-48.
St. Clair, K.L. (1989). Middle school counseling research: A resource for school counselors. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 23, 219-226.
Whitson, S.C., & Sexton, T.L. (1998). A review of school counseling outcome research: implications for practice. Journal of Counseling & Development, 76, 412-426.
- Quantitative analyses of research (meta-analyses)
also substantiate the beneficial effects of school counseling
programs.
Baker, S.B., Swisher, J.D., Nadenicheck, P.E. & Popowicz, C.L. (1984). Measured effects of primary prevention strategies. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 62, 459-464.
Prout, H.T. & Demartino, R.A. (1986). A meta-analysis of school-based studies of psychotherapy. Journal of School Psychology, 24, 285-292.
Sprinthall, N.A. (1981). A new model for research in the science of guidance and counseling. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 59, 487-493.
- Two studies find that elementary guidance activities
have a positive influence on elementary students' academic achievement.
Hadley, H.R. (1988). Improving reading scores through a self-esteem prevention program. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 22, 248-252.
Lee, R.S. (1993). Effects of classroom guidance on student achievement. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 27, 163-171.
- School counseling programs have significant influence
on discipline problems. Baker and Gerler reported that students
who participated in a school counseling program had significantly
less inappropriate behaviors and more positive attitudes toward
school than those students who did not participate in the program.
Another study reported that group counseling provided by school
counselors significantly decreased participants' aggressive
and hostile behaviors.
Baker, S. B., & Gerler, E. R. (2001). Counseling in schools. In D. C. Locke, J. E. Myers, and E. L. Herr (Eds.), The Handbook of Counseling, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Omizo, M.M., Hershberger, J.M., & Omizo, S.A. (1988). Teaching children to cope with anger. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 22, 241-245.
- Research indicates that school counselors are effective
in teaching social skills.
Verduyn, C.M., Lord, W., & Forrest, G.C. (1990). Social skills training in schools: An evaluation study. Journal of Adolescence, 13, 3-16.
- School counselors are very effective in assisting
middle school children in the area of career development.
Whiston, S. C., Sexton, T. L., & Lasoff, D. L. (1998). Career-intervention outcome: A replication and extension of Oliver and Spokane (1988). Journal of Counseling Psychology, 45, 150-165.
- Children who are experiencing family problems report
being helped by school counselors.
Omizo, M.M. & Omizo, S.A. (1988). The effects of participation in group counseling sessions on self-esteem and locus of control among adolescents from divorced families. The School Counselor, 36, 54-60.
Rose, C.C. & Rose, S.D. (1992). Family change groups for the early age child. Special Services in the Schools, 6, 113-127.
- School counseling programs designed to teach students
peer meditation skills are highly effective. In fact, studies
show that students trained in peer mediation use these skills
in other settings (e.g., at home).
Diver-Stamnes, A.C. (1991). Assessing the effectiveness of an inner-city high school peer counseling program. Urban Education, 26, 269-284.
Robinson, S.E., Morrow, S., Kigin, T. & Lindeman, M. (1991). Peer counselors in a high school setting: Evaluation of training and impact on students. The School Counselor, 39, 35-40.
- Health and mental health care services can play an
important role in violence prevention at all levels (primary,
secondary and tertiary), including preventing problem behaviors
from developing; identifying and serving specific, at-risk populations;
and reducing the deleterious effects of violence on victims
and witnesses.
Youth and Violence. Commission for the Prevention of Youth Violence, December 2000.
- School counselors were effective in reducing victimization
by assisting victimized children, reducing bullying behaviors,
and modifying the school climate and structure.
Hanish, L.D. & Guerra, N.G. (2000). Children who get victimized at school: What is known? What can be done? Professional School Counseling, 4, 113-119.
- Counselors are effective in assisting high school
students with college choices.
Student Poll. (2000). Art & Science Group, Inc.
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4:2, 1-10.
- A study shows that school counselor effectiveness
was influenced by school climate. In schools with effective
counseling programs, principals generally provided enthusiastic
support for the programs and encouragement to the counselors.
Another common element was a clear understanding between counselors
and administrators as to the goals of the school counseling
programs. These conditions were generally not present in ineffective
programs.
Sutton, J.M. & Fall, M. (1995). The relationship of school climate factors to counselor self-efficacy. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73, 331-336.
- Research shows that school counseling interventions
have a substantial impact on students' educational and personal
development. Individual and small-group counseling, classroom
guidance, and consultation activities seem to contribute directly
to students' success in the classroom and beyond. School counselors
should spend the majority of their time performing these interventions.
Coordination activities should be confined to those that improve
the program’s efficiency and accountability.
Borders, L.D. & Drury, S.M. (1992). Comprehensive school counseling programs: A review for policymakers and practitioners. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70, 487-498.
- Studies show effective counseling programs are based
on human development theories. Program content, goals, and interventions
should reflect this theoretical foundation. A developmental
program is proactive and preventive, helping students acquire
the knowledge, skills, self-awareness, and attitudes necessary
for successful mastery of normal developmental tasks. Developmentally based
programs increase the visibility of the counseling program and
ensure that more students are served (Myrick; Shaw & Goodyear).
There is also substantial empirical evidence that these programs
promote student development and academic success.
Myrick, R.D. (1987). Developmental guidance and counseling: A practical approach. Minneapolis, MN: Educational Media Corporation.
Shaw, M.C. & Goodyear, R.K. (1984). Prologue to primary prevention in schools. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 62, 446-447.
Borders, L.D. & Drury, S.M. (1992). Comprehensive school counseling programs: A review for policymakers and practitioners. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70, 487-498.
- A study of Missouri high schools shows that schools
with more fully implemented model guidance programs had students
who were more likely to report that (a) they had earned higher
grades, (b) their education was better preparing them for the
future, (c) their school made more career and college information
available to them, and (d) their school had a more positive
climate (greater feelings of belonging and safety at school,
classes less likely to be interrupted, peers behaving better).
After removing the variables of school enrollment size, socioeconomic
status, and percentage of minority students in attendance, positive
program effects were identifiable. Results highlight the important
roles school counselors play in promoting the central educational
goals of their schools and support a comprehensive guidance
program focus for university counseling faculty who train school
counselors.
Lapan, R.T., Gysbers, N.C., & Sun, Y. (1997). The impact of more fully implemented guidance programs on the school experiences of high school students: A statewide evaluation study. Journal of Counseling & Development, 75, 292-302.
- School counselors have proven effective in preventing
students from committing suicide. The most effective prevention
programs start with younger students and portray suicide as
a mental health problem, not a dramatic way of ending a life.
It is essential that counselors involve the parents of troubled
students in the counseling process.
Jones, R. (2001). Suicide Watch: What can you do to stop children from killing themselves? American School Board Journal, May, 16-21.
- In studies on the effects of a small group counseling
approach for failing elementary school students, 83 percent
of participating students showed improvement in grades.
Boutwell, D.A., & Myrick, R.D. (1992). The go for it club. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 27, 65-72.
- A study on the effects of counseling on classroom
performance found that the underachieving students who received
counseling improved significantly on the Self-Rating Scale of
Classroom Behavior and in mathematics and language arts grades.
Gerler, E. R., Kinney, J., & Anderson, R. F. (1985). The effects of counseling on classroom performance. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 23, 155-165.
- The School Dropout Assistance Program (1991-1996)
funded a number of projects to test and evaluate the effect
of promising strategies for dropout prevention and re-entry.
The results found that counseling services were one of the key
elements of promising dropout prevention initiatives.
Kaufman, P., Klein, S., & Frase, M. (1999). Dropout Rates in the United States, 1997. Statistical Analysis Report. U.S. Department of Education.
- Studies on high school attrition indicate that preventive
counseling, occurring before students are in crisis, reduces
the risk of these students dropping out later.
Bearden, L.J., Spencer, W.A., & Moracco, J.C. (1989). A study of high school dropouts. The School Counselor, 27, 113-120.
Morey, R.E., Miller, C.D., Fulton, R., & Rosen, L.A. (1993). High school peer counseling: The relationship between student satisfaction and peer counselors' style of helping, The School Counselor, 40, 293-300.
Praport, H. (1993). Reducing high school attrition: Group counseling can help. School Counselor, 40(4), 309-311.
Wirth-Bond, S., Coyne, A., & Adams, M. (1991). A school counseling program that reduces dropout rates. The School Counselor, 39, 131-137.
- Counseling decreases classroom disturbances. Counseling
services support teachers in the classroom and enable teachers
to provide quality instruction designed to assist students in
achieving high standards. Students in schools that provide counseling
services indicated that their classes were less likely to be
interrupted by other students and that their peers behaved better
in school.
Lapan, R.T., Gysbers, N.C., & Sun, Y. (1997). The impact of more fully implemented guidance programs on the school experiences of high school students: A statewide evaluation study. Journal of Counseling & Development, 75, 292-302.
- Students who have access to counseling programs reported
being more positive and having greater feelings of belonging
and safety in their schools.
Lapan, R.T., Gysbers, N.C., & Sun, Y. (1997). The impact of more fully implemented guidance programs on the school experiences of high school students: A statewide evaluation study. Journal of Counseling & Development, 75, 292-302.
- One study found that high school counselors influenced
their students' future plans by encouraging them to have high
expectations. A high proportion of 10th and 12th grade students
who were surveyed perceived that their counselor expected them
to attend college, regardless of their racial background. High
school students’ own educational expectations for themselves
increased over time.
Mau, W.C., Hitchcock, R., & Calvert, C. (1998). High school students' career plans: The influence of others’ expectations. Professional School Counseling, 2:2, 161-166.
- Students trained by counselors to be peer facilitators
are effective in helping sixth grade problem-behavior students
adjust to middle school. In one study, counselors worked with
eighth grade peer facilitators once a week for six weeks, focusing
on how to (a) establish a helping relationship, (b) use high
facilitative responses, (c) lead a small group discussion, and
(d) use a four-step problem-solving model. The facilitators
demonstrated that they could help students who are having problems
adjusting to school, especially in terms of their school attendance,
school grades, and attitude towards school. Discipline referrals
were also reduced.
Tobias, A.K. & Myrick, R.D. (1999). A peer facilitator-led intervention with middle school problem-behavior students. Professional School Counseling, 3:1, 27-33.
Myrick, R.D. & Sorensen, D.L. (1992). Helping skills for middle school students. Minneapolis, MN: Educational Media Corporation.
- Counselor-led career interventions influenced the
educational choices of eighth grade students as they prepared
for high school.
Peterson, G.W., Long, K.L., & Billups, A. (1999). The effect of three career interventions on educational choices of eighth grade students. Professional School Counseling, 3:1, 34-42.
- Counselor-led, developmental guidance units presented
in ninth grade classrooms have the potential to improve students'
expressed behavior and general school attitudes, while addressing
their developmental needs. The effectiveness of this intervention
was consistent across the different levels of student achievement
and attitudes about school. A proactive approach to program
development, such as inviting input from teachers, students,
counselors, and administrators through periodic needs assessments,
may maximize existing resources and services offered to non-college
and college-bound students. The literature suggests that such
guidance programming, based on the developmental, preventive
guidance model, may help to overcome the fragmented, impersonal,
and confusing manner in which services are often delivered to
high school students and teachers.
Schlossberg, S.M., Morris, J.D., & Lieberman, M.G. (2001). The effects of a counselor-led guidance intervention on students' behaviors and attitudes. Professional School Counseling, 4:3, 156-164.
Bearden, L.J., Spencer, W.A., & Moracco, L.C. (1989). A study of high school dropouts. The School Counselor, 37, 113-120.
Morey, R.E., Miller, C.D., Rosen, L.A., & Fulton, R. (1993). High school peer counseling: The relationship between student satisfaction and peer counselors' style of helping. The School Counselor, 40, 293-300.
Praport, H. (1993). Reducing high school attrition: Group counseling can help. The School Counselor, 40, 309-311.
Wirth-Bond, S., Coyne, A., & Adams, M. (1991). A school counseling program that reduces dropout rate. The School Counselor, 39, 131-137.
- Implementing comprehensive school counseling programs
is consistently associated with important indicators of student
safety and success. A study found that school counselors who
were more fully engaged in providing students with a unique
network of emotional and instructional support services were
more likely to exert a positive impact than counselors who did
not implement such activities. After researchers controlled
for differences between schools due to socioeconomic status
and enrollment size, students attending middle schools with
more fully implemented comprehensive programs reported (a) feeling
safer attending their schools, (b) having better relationships
with their teachers, (c) believing that their education was
more relevant and important to their futures, (d) being more
satisfied with the quality of education available to them in
their schools, (e) having fewer problems related to the physical
and interpersonal milieu in their schools, and (f) earning higher
grades.
Lapan, R.T., Gysbers, N.C., & Petroski, G.F. (2001). Helping seventh graders be safe and successful: A statewide study of the impact of comprehensive guidance and counseling programs. Journal of Counseling and Development, 79, 320-330.
- A study done in Gwinnett County, Georgia shows that
school counselors impact students’ academic performance
and can increase the on-task, productive behavior of students
and reduce disruptive behaviors. The Behavior Rating Checklist
indicated statistically significant decreases in disruptive
behaviors and significant increases in productive, on-task behaviors
for both the third grade and the fifth grade students tested.
Language arts progress was statistically significant for both
grade levels as well.
Mullis, F. & Otwell, P. (1997). Counselor accountability: A study of counselor effects on academic achievement and student behaviors. Georgia School Counselors Association Journal, 1:4, 4-12.
Watts, V. & Thomas, B. (1997). Proving that counseling programs do count: The counseling accountability. Georgia School Counselors Association Journal, 1:4, 1-3.
This list represents a summary of research on school counseling effectiveness. For more in depth information and further use, consult the original documents.
