Long Descriptions for Chapter Six

Figure 6.1. Gravity and Orbiting Objects

Diagram of a physical model. Two stick figures of students, one representing the Sun and the other a planet, each holding on to a rope that represents gravity. Text in diagram:

Both students feel the pull of the "gravity" through the rope. The pull of the rope changes the planet's direction so that it always move in a circle around the Sun.

Graphic representation of "Earth" with circular broken lines denoting a "cannon ball" that has been shot. Gravity always pulls the cannon ball toward the center of the Earth. As it moves faster, the ball travels farther and farther around the planet. Eventually, it can travel all the way around and will orbit continuously.

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Figure 6.2. Students Model Moon Phases

A series of photographs showing a student demonstrating the phases of the moon. There is a light source labeled Sun, the student is holding the Moon in an outstretched arm (a white ball on a stick) labeled Moon; her head is labeled Earth. Step 1: She demonstrates a new moon by holding the moon between the Earth and the light source. Step 2: First quarter, the student turns 90 degrees to the left with the Moon still held out in front of her. Step 3: She shows a full Moon by standing with her back to the light source and the Moon stretched out in front. Step 4: Finally, she shows the last quarter of the moon by turning 90 degree to the left. The light source is to the student’s left.

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Figure 6.3. Group Consensus Model of Moon Phases

A graphic showing the different phases of the moon relative to Earth. Sunlight is coming from the bottom of the graphic. Earth is in the middle with the side of Earth facing the Sun in daylight and the side away from the Sun in darkness. The moon orbits Earth in a clockwise motion and is drawn the same throughout the model: half light and half dark, with the light side facing the Sun and the dark side away from the Sun. At the bottom of the model is the New Moon; from Earth’s perspective we do not see the moon, we only see the dark half. Moving clockwise around the model, next is the Waning Crescent Moon; from Earth we see a left-hand crescent moon. Next is the Last Quarter; we see the left half of the moon. Next is the Waning Gibbous Moon; we see the left three-quarters of the moon. Next, at the top of the model is the Full Moon; we see a full disc of moon. Next is the Waxing Gibbous; we see the right three-quarters of the moon. Next is the First Quarter; we see the right half of the moon lit up. Next is the Waxing Crescent Moon; we see the right-hand crescent moon.

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Figure 6.4. Space-View and Moon-View Models Showing Moon Phases

Photo shows male student seated in a classroom setting in the middle of a circle of chairs with a ball on each representing the different phases of the moon. The student can swing around on the chair to face each moon.

A second picture shows a table in a classroom with eight models of the moon phases in a circle around the edge of the table. There are eight foam balls painted with different phases of the moon.

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Figure 6.5. Sunlight and Temperature

A color-coded map of the United States of America, titled Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit at 5:00 a.m. Pacific Time, March 25, 2017. The key to the color coding is at the bottom of the map. On the left it begins with purple at 10 degrees, blue at 40 degrees, green at 60 degrees, yellow at 70 degrees, orange at 80 degrees, and red at 90 degrees. This map shows purple surrounded by blue (30-40 degrees) from the Pacific Northwest down across the Sierras and the Rockies and into the northern states: Montana, Wyoming, Minnesota, and Michigan. It is also purple to blue in New York, Delaware, and Maine in the East. The coast of California is green (60 degrees). The coast of Texas, Louisiana, Alabama, and Florida is yellow (70 degrees). Most of the East Coast is green (60 degrees).

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Figure 6.6. How Much Does Latitude Affect Climate?

Two dot graphs are shown. The one on the left shows Average Annual Temperature on the y-axis and Latitude on the x-axis. The y-axis from bottom to top ranges from -15 degrees Celsius (cold) to 90 degrees Celsius (hot) in increments of 15 degrees. The y-axis is marked with Latitude from zero (Equator) to 90 (North Pole), in increments of 15 degrees. The graph shows that temperature is higher closer to the Equator and lower closer to the North Pole. The graph on the right plots Annual Temperature Range on the y-axis versus Latitude on the x-axis. The y-axis is marked from zero degrees Celsius (Same Weather Year Round) to 80 degrees Celsius (Summer different than Winter) in increments of 20 degrees. The graph shows that the weather at the equator has the lowest range where the weather is the same year round, and about 60 degrees latitude has the greatest range, and 75 degrees where the summer is different than the winter.

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Figure 6.7. Earth–Sun System Scale

This illustration shows how sunlight hits the Earth. At the Equator, the Sun hits the Earth flat and at the poles the Sun hits the Earth more obliquely and spread out. This is showing why the Sun is more intense at the Equator than at the poles. It is also showing the scale of the Sun compared to Earth. With the Sun depicted as a tiny dot, the Earth is too small to be seen at this scale. Therefore, the illustration has zoomed into the Earth to show the way sunlight reaches different parts of the Earth.

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Figure 6.8. Angle of the Sun’s Rays Affect Intensity

Two diagrams: The first diagram displays how the Sun’s angle changes throughout the day. Close to noon, the Sun hits the Earth close to 90 degrees. Close to sunrise or sunset, the sun hits at a smaller angle. The same size patch of land receives a smaller proportion of the Sun’s energy.

The second diagram: Sun angle varies with latitude. There is a partial sphere representing the Earth on the right side of the diagram. The diagram show the Sun’s rays hitting the Earth near the equator at about 90 degrees. The diagram also shows the sun’s rays hitting the Earth near the poles at about a 45-degree angle. A note near the poles reads Same size patch of land receives a smaller proportion of the Sun’s energy.

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Figure 6.9. Latitudinal Bands

Diagram of Earth where North, Central, and South America are visible along with the North Pole. This diagram shows convection cells that coincide with bands of latitude. There is one at the north pole with cold air circulating clockwise. Another occurs along the west coast of North America with air circulating counterclockwise and warm air moving north and cold air moving south. The next occurs in the Pacific at the same latitude as Central America with air circulating clockwise and warm air is moving south and cold air is moving north. The next is in the Pacific Ocean along the same latitude as the northern part of South America with air circulating counterclockwise, and warm air moving north and cold air moving south. The last cell shown is in the Pacific Ocean along the same latitude as the southern part of South America with air circulating clockwise, and warm air is moving south and cold air is moving north. In the North Pole band, the diagram reads Polar Easterlies with blue arrows (cold air) swooping down and to the left. Just under that on top of North America the diagram reads Polar front westerlies with red arrows (warm air) swooping up and to the right. There is a dotted latitude indicated by 30 degrees that extends through the southern tip of Baja California and through the middle of Mexico. Below that the diagram reads NE trade winds over Central America and the Caribbean with red arrows (warm air) swooping down and to the left. Bordering that band is the Equator with the words Equatorial Low and the latitude indicated as zero degrees. In the band just under that, the diagram reads SE trade winds with red arrows (warm air) swooping up and to the left. The diagram then shows four more convection cells to the right of these descriptions. The first cell just to the east of North America and moves clockwise with cold air moving south and warm air moving north. The cell between zero degrees and 30 degrees latitude moves counterclockwise with cold air moving north and warm air moving south. The cell below that to the east of Brazil moves clockwise with cold air moving south and warm air moving north. The convection cell under that moves counterclockwise with cold air moving north and warm air moving south.

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Figure 6.10. Temperature Changes Over Time Double Graph showing Global Land-Ocean Temperature Index

The y-axis is labeled Temperature Anomaly in degrees Celsius. The range is from -0.4 to 0.6 in increments of 0.2. The x-axis is labeled in years beginning with 1880 to 2000 in increments of 20 years. There is a key in the graph indicating the black line with a small square on it represents the Annual Mean and the red line indicates the 5-year Running Mean. The two lines follow an overall pattern of starting low in 1880 at -0.2, dipping to the lowest point around 1910 at about -0.5; rising to a spike around 1945 of 0.1, and then rising to the highest point at 2000 of 0.6.

In figure 6.10. there is also a world map of temperature change. The title is How much has average temperature changed? 2000 to 2014 versus 1900 to 1999.

This map is color-coded with a key under the map with cooler colors (purple, blues, and white) to the left of the key and warmer colors (yellow, orange, and red) to the right of the key. The key is titled Average temperature difference. To the right of the key reads 2000 to 2016 cooler by four degrees Celsius and to the left 2000 to 2016 warmer by four degrees Celsius. The colors on the map indicate the entire world is getting warmer with the Northern Hemisphere having the most change, including a small spot in Canada’s Northwest Passage extending to the north of Greenland that has experienced even greater temperature change for the warmer. It appears areas of Brazil and Northwest Africa have also experienced greater temperature change along with much of northern Europe and northern Asia.

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Figure 6.11. Global Climate Outputs

This is a triple-line graph. The y-axis is labeled Temperature anomaly in degree Celsius. The range is from zero to 1.0 in increments of 0.5. The x-axis does not have a label but it is marked in years from 1900 to 2000 in 50-year increments. There is a key in the graph: a black line represents Observations; a thick blue line represents Models using only natural changes; and a thick pink line represents Models using both natural changes and human-induced changes. The black line starts below zero at 1900, it rises slowly until about 1945 where it hits a peak and then drops down until around 1952 where it begins a steady rise until 2000 where the graph ends. The pink line showing both natural and human-induced changes follows the black line closely. The blue line showing only natural changes roughly follows the black line for only a short time between 1900 and around 1925, then the blue line continues almost horizontally to 2000. There is a note to the right of the graph that reads Natural changes alone do not explain the changes in global average temperature.

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Figure 6.12. Global Warming Cause-and-Effect

Four graphs with similar trends and patterns illustrate global warming causes and effects. The x-axis on each graph is the same with each labeled year and extending from 1850 to 2000 in 50-year increments.

1. Title: Globally averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature anomaly. The y-axis is labeled degrees Celsius and ranges from -1 to 0.4 in 0.2 increments. This graph shows almost yearly ups and downs of combined temperature change for land and ocean. At around 1900 the graph shows 0.6 degrees Celsius with cyclical ups and downs between -0.6 and -0.8 until around 1880 when there is a small spike to about -0.2, then the cyclical ups and downs continue between -0.6 and -0.8 until around 1930 when it appears to begin to rise regularly. Around 1930 the temperature change is about -0.4 spiking around 1950 to about -0.2 degrees change. From there the data shows an increase to 2000 to about 0.2 degrees Celsius but still showing yearly fluctuations.
   
   
2. Title: Globally averaged sea level change.
   
   The y-axis is labeled in meters and ranges from -0.2 to 0.1 in 0.05 increments. The data in this graph does not begin until 1900. Although this graph appears to have more than one line there is no key to differentiate between the different data. All lines tend to coincide and show a moderate rise from 1900 to 2000. For 1900, the sea level change is about -0.15, at around 1950 the sea level change is about -0.1 meter, and at year 2000 the sea level change is about 0.05.
   
   
3. Title: Globally averaged greenhouse gas concentrations.
   
   This graph shows information for three chemicals. The left hand y-axis is labeled CO2 in parts per million (ppm) and ranges from 280 to 400; The first right hand y-axis is labeled CH4 in parts per billion (ppb). The second right-hand y-axis is labeled N2O in parts per billion (ppb). Each of these lines is color-coded and all three follow roughly the same pattern, slowly rising from about 1900 until about 1980 when CO2 takes a sharp upturn and CH4 and N2O are still rising but only moderately.
   
   
4. Title: Global anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Quantitative information of CH4 and N2O emission time series from 1850 to 1970 is limited.)
   
   The y-axis is labeled GtCO2 per year and ranges from zero to 40 in increments of five. Two types of origin of emissions is graphed on the same axes: Fossil fuels, cement, and flaring is colored grey and Forestry and other land use is colored light brownish-yellow. The Forestry and other land use data remain fairly low and steady across the years, but the fossil fuel emissions begin to increase around 1900 (= five) and around 1950 take a sharp upturn to 2000  when emissions reached about 38. There is also another graph showing Cumulative CO2 emissions on the right side of graph D. It also compares emissions for Forestry and other land use to emissions from Fossil fuels, cement, and flaring using the same colors but compare the cumulative CO2 emission from 1750 to 1970 to the period of 1750 to 2011. From 1750 to 1970, Forestry and other land use shows 500 GTCO2 with another 400 GTCO2 from fossil fuels on top of that for a total of about 900. For the period of 1750-2011 that graph shows about 750 GTCO2 for Forestry and other land use with another 1250 on top of that for fossil fuels, cement, and flaring for a total of about 2000 GTCO2.

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Figure 6.13. Air Mass Interactions

Title of Figure is Key Concepts to know about weather

Graphic showing the four important components of a model of weather that describes the interaction of air masses.

Four images from left to right:

• Interesting weather happens when two air masses collide (two clouds with arrows pointing toward each other)
• When two air masses collide, one goes up (two clouds that have bumped into one another, one with arrow pointing up and to the left).
• When an air mass goes up, it cools (arrow up and to the left equals a cloud with a thermometer that reads very low.)
• Water condenses more easily in cold air. As air cools, it rains/snows/etc. (cloud has raindrops coming out of it with the same low thermometer.)

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Figure 6.14. Sedimentary Rock Processes

Graphic showing four steps involved in the making of sedimentary rocks.

1. Weathering/Erosion - a gray cloud raining and hammer cracking a rock.
2. Transport - a truck carrying rock material.
3. Deposition - a truck dumping dirt.
4. Cementation/Lithification- a man pouring sand into a cement mixer.

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Figure 6.15. Groundwater and the Water Cycle

This model shows a cross-section of California’s Central Valley. On the left (West Coast Ranges) are loose sediment, sedimentary rocks, and small grains. This layer swoops under the main part of the valley and nearly reaches the surface at the foot of the Sierra Nevada (solid bedrock) in the east. On top of the loose sediment in the interior of the valley is loose sediment with large grains, along with pockets of loose sediment with small grains throughout. The water is shown coming into the valley from streams or rivers from both the west and the east (snow pack), and then filtering through the loose sediment, eventually rising to the top again. At the surface of the valley is a river flowing through the middle of the valley fed by the water table that lies just below the surface of the valley. At the surface, evapotranspiration occurs with water evaporating into the atmosphere. Precipitation also occurs in the valley adding water back into the cycle.

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Figure 6.16. Processes that Shape Landscapes

Landscapes are shaped at a range of timescales by internal processes inside the Earth and by other processes on the surface. This diagram shows a mountain being built by plate movement (constructive forces – two plates pushing together) and destructive forces like rain.

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Figure 6.17. Fossil Evidence of Continental Drift

This is a diagram of Pangaea, which was a supercontinent that existed millions of years ago. This is where all of the continents of today were once connected and fit together like a puzzle. This diagram shows the fossil remains of the Cynognathus, a Triassic land reptile approximately 3 meters long, are found across the middle of South American and into the middle of Africa where the continents were once joined. There are fossils of the Triassic land reptile, Lystrosaurus, found in India, Antarctica, and Africa where those three continents were once joined. Fossil remains of the fresh water reptile Mesosaurus are found in the southern part of South America and southern Africa where those two continents were once joined. Fossils of the fern Glossopteris, found in all of the southern continents, show that they were once joined.

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Figure 6.18. Plate Motions Shape Landforms and Seafloor Features

This diagram shows a cross section of the Earth’s surface illustrating the different types of plate motion. From left to right, there is a plate converging on another. The denser plate sinks down under the less dense plate, forming a deep sea trench where the two plates converge. This convergence also forms a mountain range with folded layers to the right of the trench. Further to the right two plates diverge forming a mid-ocean ridge.

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Figure 6.19. Ideas About the Physical States of Rock

A diagram showing incorrect and correct ideas about rocks. On the left is the incorrect idea that rocks are solid and homogeneous all the way through. On the right is the correct idea that Rocks can be found as a solid (in huge chunks or tiny pieces), a liquid (as magma or lava), or as a plastic or solid (in the asthenosphere). The rock in this diagram has different layers: on the bottom it is solid, the next layer is plastic, and then another of solid rock with a liquid layer forming a volcano at the surface.

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Figure 6.20. Classic Rock Cycle Diagram

Three rectangles in a circle connected by bidirectional arrows connecting them. In the upper left is Igneous Rocks; upper right is Sedimentary Rocks; and bottom middle is Metamorphic Rocks. From Igneous Rock to Sedimentary Rocks is an arrow labeled Weathering and erosion. From Sedimentary Rocks to Igneous rocks is an arrow labeled Melting. From Sedimentary Rocks to Metamorphic Rocks is an arrow labeled Heating and Pressure. From Metamorphic Rocks to Sedimentary Rocks is an arrow labeled Weathering and erosion. From Metamorphic Rocks to Igneous Rocks is an arrow labeled Melting. From Igneous to Metamorphic is an arrow labeled Heating and Pressure.

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Figure 6.21. A River Environment

Line drawing of a river environment 200 years ago. A river flows through a valley appearing to come from a mountain in the distance with melting snow forming a waterfall. A fish and a frog are shown in the river. There is a carcass of a partially eaten deer on the banks of the river along with large rocks and vegetation, including ferns, a full-grown tree, and a sapling. Clouds hang in the sky.

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Figure 6.22. Example of a Student Group Model of Glucose

Photograph of a student model of glucose using different-colored sticky notes. There are six yellow carbon atoms, six pink oxygen atoms, and 12 blue hydrogen atoms.

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Figure 6.23. Features of a Human Person System

Outline of a human body surrounded by descriptions of their features and functions.

• Boundary: Skin
• Components: Cells, tissues, organs, subsystems, plus heat energy, kinetic energy, and chemical potential energy.
• Interactions: Cellular respiration, circulation, digestion (internal interactions), walking, breathing (external interactions).
• Inputs/outputs: Food (matter & energy input), air (matter input), CO2 and urine (matter outputs), heat energy (energy output).
• Properties: Temperature, health, personality, and size.

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Figure 6.24. Microscopic View of Rock, Plant, and Animal Cells

Series of three photos of cells. The first is Gabbro Rock. The area photographed is 0.5 centimeters across. The rock appears to have many types of matter fused together. The second photo is of onion cells (plant). The area photographed is 0.05 centimeters across. The cells appear blue and most are rectangular in shape, although many of the ends are pointed. Each cell has a visible nucleus inside. The third photo is of Parathyroid cells (animal). The area photographed is 0.005 centimeters across. The cells appear pink, small, and tightly packed together with a prominent nucleus in each cell.

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Figure 6.25. Deaths from Typhoid in Pittsburgh Pennsylvania, 1900-1914

This is a histogram titled Water Filtration Saves Lives in Pittsburgh. The y-axis is labeled Number of Deaths from Typhoid, with markers every 100 people and ranging from zero to 600. The x-axis is labeled Year, with bars in one-year increments and ranging from 1900 to 1914. The bars from 1900 to 1906 are grouped with a note that reads Raw river water only. The bar for 1900 is about 460 deaths, 1901 about 400, 1902 about 460, 1903 about 470, 1904 about 500, and 1905 about 360. The bar for 1907 has a note that reads First filter starts and it shows about 420 deaths. The bar for 1908 shows about 150 deaths. The bar for 1909 has a note that reads All water filtered and shows about 50 deaths, 1910 shows about 50 deaths, 1911 about 40 deaths, 1912 about 25 deaths, 1913 about 30 deaths, and 1914 shows about 25 deaths from Typhoid in Pittsburgh.

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Figure 6.26. Bone Structures

Line drawings of seven animal limbs. Starting from the upper left clockwise: Frog, Lizard, Bird, Human, Bat, Whale, and Cat. Each of these limbs has the same parts from top to bottom: humerus, ulna, radius, and carpal. A note on the right read that Different animals share the same number and organization of bones in their appendages.

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Figure 6.27. Genes and Environment

Graphic of student poster that displays the continuum of traits from genetics to the environment. This poster displays the concepts that some traits are essentially all genetic, and some are mostly environmental, but ultimately that most traits are strongly influenced both by genes and the environment.  

Three examples of the combination of genetics and environment that students posted include Siamese coat color, good hunter, and skin cancer.

The next area of the poster includes various traits that students posted between the continuum of genetic and nongenetic. Traits on this continuum fall under the four areas of hard to say, a combination, genetics, and nongenetics.

On the genetic side of the continuum, students posted black coat, male, cross-eyed, and large build.

In the middle of the continuum between genetic and nongenetic, students posted includes born sterile and fear of dogs.

On the nongenetic side of the continuum, students posted eye problem from injury, neutered, has worms, FIV positive, and born sterile.

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Figure 6.28. Incorrect and Correct Ideas about Genes and Traits

There are four boxes in 2 by 2 arrangement. Title is Ideas about Genes & Traits.

In the upper left box: Incorrect, Each genetic trait is determined by the alleles for a single gene (Gene X leads to Trait 1) There is a large x in the background of this box.

In the upper right box: Correct, Traits are usually determined by the alleles of multiple genes. (Gene X, Gene Y, and Gene Z all lead to Trait 1)

In the lower left box: Incorrect, the alleles for a single gene only influence one trait (Gene X leads to Trait 1). There is a large X in the background of this box.

In the lower right box: Correct, the alleles for a single gene typically influence multiple traits (Gene X leads to Traits 1, 2, and 3).

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Figure 6.29. Analysis of Different Physical Characteristics of Finches

Another title within the figure is Engineering Connection: Engineer a Bird Beak. This figure is comprised of three elements: a series of different species of finches, a graph comparing Beak Length to Bite Force, and a graph comparing Head Width (or Head Size) to Bite Force.

The first element on the left is a series of photographs of the heads of different species of finches. From top to bottom are: Geospiza fulgvrosa, Geospiza fortis, Geospiza magnirostris, Geospiza scandens, Platyspiza crassirostris, Cactospiza pallida, Camarhynchus psittacula, Camarhynchus parvulus, and Certhidea olivacea. The second element is a scatter plot of Beak Length (x-axis) versus Bite Force (y-axis). The graph shows that this is not a good correlation. The third element is another scatter plot comparing Head Width (x-axis) to Bite Force (y-axis). This graph shows a strong correlation and is interpreted to mean that bigger heads = stronger bite.

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Figure 6.30. Average Moose Weight Varies by Latitude in Sweden

This is a scatter plot (with a line of best fit) that shows the average body mass of a moose increases the higher the latitude.

On the y-axis is the latitude ranging from 57 degrees north to 66 degrees north in increments of three degrees. On the x-axis is the average body mass of Moose in kilograms ranging from 180 kg to 230 kg in 10 kg increments.

There is a map of Sweden in the background of the map positioned to match the latitude. The line of best fit has a positive slope of approximately 0.8.

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Figure 6.31. Collisions and Energy Flow

There are two panels showing what happened before and then during a collision between a skateboarder and a person standing stationary reading a book. The first panel, before the collision, is titled System of two objects prior to a collision. It shows the Fast-moving skateboarding person moving directly toward the Stationary book-reading person. The second panel is titled Model of energy flow within the system during the collision. It shows the Source Object (the skateboarding person) has a decrease in kinetic energy when they collide with the Receiver Object (the book-reading person), who then experiences an increase in kinetic energy.

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Figure 6.32. Energy Flow with Friction

Model of Energy Flow within the system that has friction. This is a model of a toy car on a table. The source object, the car, has a decrease in kinetic energy. That energy is transferred to two receiver objects: the table and car. The table experiences an increase in thermal energy and the car experiences an increase in thermal energy.

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Figure 6.33. Roller Coaster Energy Flow

Two panels are shown. On the left is a drawing of a person in a roller coaster car traveling down a steep slope, with the title System of a roller coaster going downhill. On the right is a diagrammatic model of the system with the title Model of energy flow within the system as it goes downhill. Source object is the roller coaster car that experiences a decrease in gravitational potential energy. There is a right-facing arrow pointing to the receiver object, the roller coaster car, which experiences an increase in kinetic energy.

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Figure 6.34. Energy Flow and Magnets

System with a magnet moving a compass needle shows a compass needle with movement indicated with the red end of the needle pointing NNE. There is a magnet close by, one end is white and the other red, with the white side closest to the compass.

Model of energy flow within the system with a magnet moving a compass needle. The Source Object (compass needle) experiences a decrease in magnetic potential energy, transfers energy to the Receiver Object (compass needle), which experiences an increase in kinetic energy.

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Figure 6.35. Multi-Stage Energy Flow

Model of multi-stage energy flow within the system of an electric car. This is a flow chart model with two panels. On the left panel, Energy input to the system is coming from outside the system. Source object (battery terminals) has a decrease in electric potential energy. The receiver object (motor coil) has an increase in magnetic potential energy. On the right panel, the source object (motor coil) has a decrease in magnetic potential energy, which leads to the receiver object (axel and wheels) that has an increase in kinetic energy. From the axel and wheels there is energy leaving the system.

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Figure 6.36. Diagrammatic Representation of a Wave

This model shows a sine wave superimposed on a grid. The amplitude (m) of the wave is indicated as the distance between the x-axis and the peak of the wave. The wavelength (m) is indicated as the distance from one peak to the next. The frequency (1/s) is indicated with the drawing of a human eye watching the peaks. Along the bottom of the model is a horizontal arrow pointing right, indicating that the Speed of the wave is in meters per second.

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Figure 6.37. Light Waves and Different Materials

A pictorial model of the interactions between light waves and three different ideal materials.

1. Mirror (reflected) - All energy is transferred to observer, and mirror has no change in energy.
2. White paper (reflected and scattered, transmitted by the paper) - Some energy is transferred to the observer, and white paper has no change in energy 
3. Black paper (absorbed) - No energy is transferred to the observer, and black paper increases in energy due to energy absorbed.

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Figure 6.38. Energy Flow and Hot Chocolate

Model of energy flow within the system of a mug of hot chocolate sitting on a table.

Source Object: Mug of hot chocolate has a decrease in thermal energy.

Receiver Objects: Table has an increase in thermal energy, while air in the room has an increase in thermal energy.

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Figure 6.39. Energy Flow and Heated Chemicals

A second title of the figure is the Model of flow within the system where chemicals heat up when mixed. The source object is the chemicals inside the bag, which experience a decrease in chemical potential energy to the Receiver object, also the chemicals inside the bag, which experience an increase in thermal energy.

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Figure 6.40. Student Physical Model

Chart showing stick figures of students using their bodies as a physical model of the combustion of methane. There are stick figures holding element signs, moving, and then rejoining each other in different combinations.  From the top left, one group has CH4, one has O2, and another group has O2. The students then rearrange to make CO2, H2O, and another H2O.

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