Long Descriptions for Chapter Eight
Long descriptions for complex figures and tables in Chapter Eight of the Science Framework for California Public Schools, Kindergarten through Grade Twelve.Figure 8.1
Figure 8.1. Two Pictorial Models of the Stages of the Cell Cycle
Pie chart of the stages of mitosis. The size of the pie wedge is proportional to the time spent in each phase. It shows that a cell spends most of its time, 66%, in the Gap 1 (G1) phase and about the same amount of time in each of the other three phases: Synthesis (S) phase, Gap 2 (G2) phase, and Mitotic (M) phase.
The second diagrams shows the cell cycle can be divided into two stages: Interphase (consisting of G1, S, and G2) and the Mitotic phase. Most cells spend a majority of their life in G1 of Interphase, which is when the cell is performing the functions of its cell type (e.g. a cardiac muscle cell in G1 is helping operate the heart and a plant root cell in G1 is involved in water transport). Once a cell in G1 commits to dividing, it enters the S phase, which is when DNA replicates exactly. Once the DNA is replicated, the cell can no longer perform as a “normal” cell; therefore, it enters the G2 phase and continues to prepare for mitotic cell division. Once all steps are taken to prepare for division, the cell enters the M phase, consisting of mitosis (nuclear division) and cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division). The end result of the mitotic phase is two identical daughter cells, each of which contains an exact copy of the DNA.
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Figure 8.2
Figure 8.2. Phenomena Illustrating Relationship between Photosynthesis and Respiration
There are two elements to this figure. On the left is a sealed glass ecosphere containing water, coral, algae, and brine shrimp. On the right is a line graph titled Mauna Loa Monthly Averages for CO2 Output. The y-axis is CO2 parts per million (ppm) and ranges from 386 to 408 ppm with increments of two ppm. The x-axis is time in dates from January 2011 to January 2016 in one-year increments. There is a pattern of peaks and valleys. In January 2011 it was 387 ppm, in June 2011 the CO2 output was about 394 ppm. Around January 2012 CO2 output was about 389 ppm, then in June 2012 it went back up to about 397 ppm. This pattern of a high output in June and a lower output in January continues with a slight increase each year. It has increased almost the same amount every year (three to four ppm increase). The last measurement on the graph, around June 2016, shows an output of about 407 ppm of CO2.
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Figure 8.3
Figure 8.3. Models of Photosynthesis and Respiration
There are two panels. The panel on the left shows a chemical equation at the top: CxHyOz + O2 (double-headed arrow) CO2 + H2O + Energy. Under the left side of that equation is the label “Food.” Under that is a flow of energy and matter. Starting on the left side, oxygen comes into the system from plants, humans consume oxygen (and plants) and give off energy, CO2, and water. The energy and water go into the environment and CO2 is taken up by plants along with sunlight energy and water. The plants then give off oxygen that cycles back to humans and the process start all over again. On the right side of the figure is a picture of a leaf receiving energy in the form of sunlight. On the leaf is written 6 H2O + 6 CO2 with an arrow pointing to C6H12O6 + 6 02 (Glucose) and an arrow pointing back to the first equation.
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Figure 8.4
Figure 8.4. The Carbon Cycle Includes Biotic and Abiotic Processes
Illustration of human settlement next to an ocean. On the ground are layers of peat, coal, and oil with a notation of formation of fossil fuels that come from organic decomposition (animal waste, dead animals, and plants). On the surface of the land from left to right are shown things that contribute to atmospheric CO2: combustion (volcano); combustion of fossil fuels (a factory, cars, house); organic decomposition; plant respiration (trees); animal respiration (farm cows). Assimilation of atmospheric CO2 is illustrated through plants and animals (trees and cows), assimilation into the soil, assimilation by phytoplankton (which lead to marine deposits of CaCO3).
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Figure 8.5
Figure 8.5. Two Graphs of the Decline of Tuberculosis
Top is a Line Graph. The y-axis is labeled Deaths per 100,000 people and ranges from zero to 700 in increments of 100. The x-axis is Year and ranges from 1820 to 2020 in increments of 20 years. The graph notes that from 1820 to about 1860 ‘Infrequent historical records available.’ The data starts at 650 deaths per 100,000 in 1820 and declines until around 1850 (500 deaths) when it begins to increase to about 550 deaths in 1860. At this point on the graph it is noted that Nightingale promotes hospital cleanliness. From this point the number of deaths declines sharply to about 350 deaths per 100,000 people and continues to decline to what appears to be near zero by 1955. Milestones are noted along the graph: in around 1885 Koch discovers TB bacteria, in around 1925 the first TB vaccine is available, and in about 1950 the antibiotic of TB is first tested. In a second-line graph we see the same information (deaths from TB per 100,000 people) but for various countries on the same grid (Finland, Brazil, UK, Canada, and USA from top to bottom; Finland shows the most deaths to USA showing the fewest). All countries show a decline in deaths after the antibiotic for TB was first tested in about 1948.
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Figure 8.6
Figure 8.6. Tree of Life
Chart of the Evolutionary Tree of Life. This evolutionary tree encompasses all living species on Earth. The common ancestor (the base of the tree) gave rise to three great branches: bacteria, microbes known as archaea, and eukaryotes (a group of species that includes us). The lengths of the branches reflect how much the DNA of each lineage has diverged from their common ancestor. They demonstrate that most of life's genetic diversity turns out to be microbial; the entire animal kingdom (shown at the upper right) are just a few twigs at one end of the tree. This is a branching-tree diagram. On the Bacteria branch from bottom to top are: Aquifex, Thermotagales, Flavobacteria, Cyanobacteria, Chloroplast, Purple bacteria, and Chloroflexus. On the Archaea branch from bottom to top are: Pyrodictium, Thermoproteus, Thermococcus, Methanococcus, Methanothermus, and Halophiles. Branching off from the Archaea are the Eukarya including from bottom to top: Diplomonads, Microsporidia, Trichonomads, Flagellates, Entoamoebae, Slime molds, Ciliates, Diatoms, Plants, Animals, and Fungi.
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Figure 8.7
Figure 8.7. Example of a Quickwrite Using an Interactive Spreadsheet
Screenshot of Google Sheets. The title at the top reads Ms. O Science per 1; a hollow star and a file folder icon. On the next line are the menu items: File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Data, Tools, Add-ons, Help. At the end of that row “All changes saved in Drive. The next row at the icons: Print, go back, go forward, format painter, $, %, .0 with a left pointing arrow, .00 with a right pointing arrow, 1 2 3 with a dropdown menu icon, Arial with a dropdown menu icon, 10 with a dropdown menu icon, Bold, Italics, strikethrough, ‘A’ with a black bar and a dropdown menu icon (font color), fill color, borders. On the next line is a space to enter a formula with the fx symbol. On the next line are the column header letter A through D and part of E. One the next line are the column header titles: Row 1 Name, What do you notice, any patterns?, Are your classmates all tall or all short?, How tall i… (the rest of the question is cutoff). The next line is row 2 and under the title Name is Alison B. The next line is row 3, Nicholas O. And the last line shown is row 4, Jayden C.
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Figure 8.9
Figure 8.9. Relationship of DCIs in Biology Including High School and Middle Grades Content
The main topics are Genetics, Environment, Organisms, Systems, Ecosystems, and Cells. Linked to Genetics are: traits have variations that can be adaptations that allow organisms to survive long enough to reproduce and pass on their genes. Adaptations also allow better use of limited resources. Reproduction can be sexual or asexual. Sexual reproduction mixes parent’s genetics. Organisms reproduce to increase the population. Genetic traits can be behavioral or physical. Change in genetic traits are recorded by the fossil record. Genetic records are DNA; errors in duplication are mutations that affect traits. DNA has a unique structure that enables the synthesis of proteins. Genetics defines the recipe of proteins and affects growth. Genetics and the Environment can both be influenced by humans. Genetics and the Environment both affect Growth, which can be aerobic or anaerobic. Growth is an accumulation of biomass, which can be eaten to become food. The Environment is made up of Ecosystems, which contain Producers, Consumers, and Decomposers. Producers undergo photosynthesis, absorbing carbon. Producers also undergo Respiration, which releases Carbon. Consumers also undergo Respiration, which can be aerobic or anaerobic. Decomposers include some Consumers, which also include predators and prey. Ecosystems maintain stability, which is a form of Homeostasis. Food involves chemical reactions, which rearrange Matter and can release energy. Organisms can function as Systems, which have Boundaries and Overall system properties. Systems have Cycles of Matter and Energy and input/output of matter and energy. Systems have components, which have interactions. Cells also function as systems. Cells combine into organs and tissues, which combine to form Human body systems, which include Sensory receptors that trigger the nervous system. Cells duplicate via mitosis.
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Figure 8.10
Figure 8.10. Chemistry in Everyday Life
Illustrated examples of the "Significance of Chemistry to Society".
Significance of Chemistry to Society all pointing to the following:
Electronics (picture of laptop for representation): etchers, magnets, insulators, conductors, plastics, semiconductors, resins, superconductors, phosphors, pigments
Foods (picture of hamburger): antioxidants, colors, emulsifiers, flavors, minerals, preservatives, stabilizers, sweeteners, thickeners, vitamins.
Transportation (picture of a sedan/car): catalysts, fuel additives, alloys, propellants, concretes, fuels, paints, asphalts, refrigerants, plastics.
Environment (picture of earth): Air pollutants, water pollutants, acids, carcinogens, toxins, emulsifiers, catalysts, teratogens, greenhouse gases.
Home Products (a picture of a bottle of cleaning product): Adhesives, detergents, disinfectants, plastics, lubricants, fibers, cosmetics, dyes, polymers, paints.
Medicine (the medicine symbol - Rod of Asclepius): anticoagulants, hormones, stimulants, vaccines, antihistamines, antibiotics, depressants, anesthetics, analgesics, narcotics.
Agriculture (a picture of a tractor): fungicides, growth regulators, feed supplements, soil conditioners, herbicides, animal hormones, defoliants, rodenticides, insecticides.
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Figure 8.11
Figure 8.11. Patterns in the First Ionization Energy of Different Elements
This is a graph titled First Ionization Energies. The y-axis is labeled Ionization energy (eV) and ranges from zero to 25 in increments of five. The x-axis is labeled Atomic Number and ranges from zero to 100 in increments of 10. Not every element in each period is identified. From left to right are Helium (2, 24.00). Next is Neon (10, 20.80). Third is Argon (18, 15.20). Fourth is Krypton (36, 13.51). Fifth is Xenon (54, 11.70). Sixth is Radon (86, 10.37).
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Figure 8.12
Figure 8.12. Models of Atomic Structure Explain Periodic Trends
Bohr model and octet rule illustration: Na is a sodium atom. Thesodiumnucleus contains 11 protons and 12 neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus are three circular shells containing 11 electrons (two, eight, one). CI is a Chlorine atom. Thechlorinenucleus contains 17 protons and 18 neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus are three circular shells containing 17 electrons (two, eight, seven). Na+ is a Sodium ion (a cation); Cl- is a Chloride ion (an anion). When combined they form NaCl with the outermost electron from the Na atom joining the Cl atom.
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Figure 8.13
Figure 8.13. Patterns and the Periodic Table
This diagram shows patterns in the table of elements. Atomic radius (blue arrow pointing from top to bottom and from right to left); Electron Affinity (brown arrow pointing from left to right and from bottom to top); Ionization Energy (yellow arrow pointing left to right and bottom to top); Nonmetallic character (green arrow pointing diagonally from the lower left to the upper right); and Metallic Character (gray arrow pointing diagonally from the upper right to the lower left).
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Figure 8.14
Figure 8.14. Models of Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions
Six subpanels with different models of energy changes in chemical reactions. Panel A shows a red box labeled Chemical System with arrows pointing outward. Panel B is similar to A, except that the box is blue and the arrows all point inward to the Chemical System box. Panel C shows a graph of Gibbs free energy versus time with Reactants on the left and Products on the right. As time progresses, the Gibbs free energy goes gently upwards and then falls back down again to a lower value than before. The left side of the graph is labeled reactants and the right side is labeled products. Panel D is similar to Panel C except that the curve is a mirror image of C, but still has with Reactants on the left and Products on the right. It starts off lower, goes way up, and then comes back down to a value higher than the starting point. Panel E depicts molecules as balls. An upward pointing arrow on the left indicates that the position of the molecules in the figure is related to their enthalpy. There are three molecules at the start. In the middle of the panel, all the molecules are broken apart into nine individual atoms (shown as separate balls). These broken apart balls are higher up in the figure and an arrow pointing upward says 'breaking bonds.' On the right side of the panel, there are three molecules again, but they are different than the starting point and are located much lower on the page (indicating a drop in enthalpy). A red arrow points downward with the label ‘forming bonds.’ Panel F is similar to Panel E except that there is no arrow indicating enthalpy. Instead, the molecules are in one box, an arrow (with energy given off) labeled 'bonds break' points to the next box of individual atoms, and then a second arrow points to a box with the three new molecules with the label ‘bonds form’. A yellow explosion symbol with the label 'energy' appears at the bottom, indicating energy is given off.
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Figure 8.15
Figure 8.15. Developmental Progression of Models of Energy in Chemical Reactions
Middle School example:
Photosynthesis: 6CO2 plus 6H2O plus energy in goes to C6H12O6 plus 6O2
Aerobic Respiration: C6H12O6 plus 6O2 goes to 6CO2 plus 6H2O plus energy out.
The glucose (C6H12O6) molecule is highlighted in each equation.
Introductory High School
Photosynthesis is written in a right-facing arrow; Aerobic respiration is written in a left-facing arrow.
There is a graph with bond energy on the y-axis and progress of reaction on the x-axis.
The line of the graph shows C6H12O6 plus 6O2 on a flat part of the graph; the graph goes sharply upward and then sharply down. At the end of the graph where it levels out, we have 6CO2 plus 6H2O.
In the next panel is Advanced high school with the same graph as introductory high school but the line of the graph shows many interactions of the reactions with the text "series of intermediate reactions with smaller activation energy enabled by enzymes."
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Figure 8.16
Figure 8.16. Covalent, Polar Covalent, and Ionic Bonding
Illustrations of 3 types of bonds, nonpolar covalent, polar covalent and ionic.
(a) Nonpolar covalent bond (CI to CI): Bonding electrons shared equally between two atoms. Atoms have no charge.
(b) Polar covalent bond (slight+ (H to CI) slight-): Bonding electrons shared unequally between two atoms. Atoms have partial charge.
(c) Ionic bond (Na+ to CI-): Electron completely transferred. Oppositely charged ions.
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Figure 8.17
Figure 8.17. Le Châtelier’s Principle
Diagram showing how students should be able to apply Le Châtelier’s principle to predict ways to increase the product of a chemical reaction. For example, gas pressure is reduced and heat is given out when hydrogen and nitrogen combine to form ammonia. According to Le Châtelier’s principle, the reaction can proceed to produce more ammonia by increasing the pressure and/or by dropping the temperature. Conversely, more ammonia will decompose into hydrogen and nitrogen by lowering the pressure and/or raising the temperature.
Hydrogen molecules (white molecule) + nitrogen molecules (blue molecule).
Forward reaction increased by rise in pressure and drop in temperature.
Backward reaction increased by lower pressure and higher temperature.
Ammonia molecules (three white molecule bond to one blue).
Information across illustration in the middle Nitrogen and hydrogen combine for ammonia. As they do so, the gas pressure is reduced and heat is given out. According to Le Châtelier’s principle, to make the reaction proceed left to right, high pressures and low temperatures are needed.
Coming from the nitrogen molecules are two pressure gauges marked from zero to seven; the left one is marked four and the right one is marked tw to show "gas pressure is reduced by combination of hydrogen and nitrogen molecule.”
Two thermometers from the nitrogen molecules; the left one shows a low temperature and the right one shows a higher temperature. Text reads: "combination reaction gives out heat."
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Figure 8.18
Figure 8.18. Demonstration of LeChâtelier’s Principle (Equilibrium Law)
A series of four flasks. The first has clear liquid in it. The second has colored liquid in it (has a stopper) and is shown with the notation “shake and swirl.” Under this pair of flasks is noted “O2 + methylene blue (colorless) (reduced) right arrow methylene blue (blue) (oxidized).” The third flask has colored liquid in it and has a stopper. The fourth has clear liquid with a stopper. Under this pair of flasks is noted “RH + OH- right arrow R- + H2O; Methylene Blue (oxidized) + R- right arrow Methylene Blue (reduced) + oxidation products of glucose.
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Figure 8.19
Figure 8.19. A Physical Model of Equilibrium
Photo of two students bailing blue liquid from their own large beakers and pouring it into the other’s beaker.
Figure 8.20
Figure 8.20. Fluid Levels Recorded from the Physical Model
Graph of Fluid Levels: Volume (mL) on the y-axis ranging from zero to 800 in increments of 200; Exchanges on the x-axis ranging from one to 20 in increments of five.
Blue dots=Volume Beaker A. Starts at about 700 mL and ends at about 250 mL in an even curve.
Orange dots = Volume Beaker B. Starts at zero and ends at about 450, and is also in an even curve.
The graphs are mirrors of each other.
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Figure 8.21
Figure 8.21. Online Simulation of Factors Affecting Equilibrium
Image of a PHET Interactive Simulation.
Air pump in red with black hose into a blue-outlined square with yellow, purple, and blue molecules inside.
Temperature slider control: Raise, zero; Lower, positioned at zero.
Molecule represent by color: There are four choices with radio buttons Yellow (A); Purple and blue (BC); Yellow and purple (AB); and Blue (C). The radio button for Purple and blue (BC) is chosen.
An equation is shown: Yellow (A) + Purple and blue (BC) double-headed arrow Yellow and purple (AB) + Blue (C).
Two Graphs: Bar graph “Current Amounts:” On the y-axis is Number of Molecules ranging from zero to 14 in increments of two. On the x-axis are the different types of molecules: Yellow (A), Purple and blue (BC), Yellow and purple (AB), and Blue (C). One yellow (A) bar at 10, One purple and blue (BC) bar at nine, one Yellow and purple (AB) bar at 10, one blue (C) bar at three. There is a toggle control to increase or decrease the number of molecules.
The second graph is Energy versus Reaction Coordinate (there are no markings on wither axis). The green line “Total average energy” remains horizontal across the graph about one-third of the way up the y-axis. The blue line, “Potential energy,” is horizontal and below Total average energy, then about halfway across the graph spikes up and comes down to just above Total average energy where it remains horizontal again.
The same equation appears as on the previous panel: Yellow (A) + Purple and blue (BC) double-headed arrow Yellow and purple (AB) + Blue (C).
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Figure 8.22
Figure 8.22. Global Distribution of People Who Suffer from Chronic Undernourishment
Pie chart for 2010-12
A (red), B (yellow green), C (orange brown); D (green); E (buff); F (orange), G (light gray); H (brown), I (dark gray)
Total=868 million
To the right of pie chart:
Number of undernourished (millions)
A=Developed regions: 1990-92 (20); 2010-12 (16)
B=Southern Asia: 1990-92 (327); 2010-12 (304)
C=Sub-Saharan Africa: 1990-92 (170); 2010-12 (234)
D=Eastern Asia: 1990-92 (261); 2010-12 (167)
E=South-Eastern Asia: 1990-92 (134); 2010-12 (65)
F=Latin America and the Caribbean: 1990-92 (65); 2010-12 (49)
G= Western Asia and Northern Africa: 1990-92 (13); 2010-12 (25)
H=Caucasus and Central Asia: 1990-92 (9); 2010-12 (6)
I= Oceania: 1990-92 (1); 2010-12 (1)
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Figure 8.23
Figure 8.23. Haber Process of Nitrogen Fixation
A flow chart illustration of the process of nitrogen fixation. From outside the system: Methane CH4 and Water H2O enters a cylinder. Inside the cylinder is the equation CH4 + H2O right arrow CO + 3H2. That compound is mixed with Air from outside the system (O2N2) into another cylinder with the equation 2CH4 + O2 right arrow 2CO + 4H2. N2, H2, CO flow through a pipe to a container with the label Catalysor 500 degrees Celsius along with water H2O. A pipe carrying N2, H2, and CO2 comes out the top of the Catalysor and flows into a Compressor and then into a new container along with water (H2O) from outside the system. From this container are two pipes – the first lets out H20 and CO2 to outside the system; the second flows up through a Heater and then down through another Compressor and into a Reactor. There is a pipe coming from the reactor into a Condenser (along with more water) from which steam is released to outside the system along with waste heat. From there N2, H2, and NH3 flow into a cooler. From the cooler N2 and H2 flow through a compressor and back to the same Reactor and the Ammonia (Fluid) is collected in a tank. Alongside the Reactor are the notes “>>Catalysor; >>450 degrees Celsius; >> 300 bar.” Above the Catalysor is the note “Production of the synthesis mixture” and above the Reactor “Production of ammonia.”
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Figure 8.25
Figure 8.25. Engineering Design Cycle
Three shapes linked in a circle: Define - Attend to a broad range of considerations in criteria and constraints for problems of social and global significance. Develop Solutions - Break a major problem into smaller problems that can be solved separately. Optimize - Prioritize criteria, consider trade-offs, and assess social and environmental impacts as a complex solution that is tested and refined.
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Figure 8.26
Figure 8.26. World Population Growth
A bar graph with Population (billion people) on the y-axis ranging from zero to 14 in increments of one (billion) and Year on the x-axis ranging from 1000 to 2300 in 100-year increments. In 1000 the population is well below half a billion steadily increasing to about 1850 when it reaches one billion; in 1950 we are at about 2.5 billion; in 2000 6 billion. Then projections begin at 2050, world population is projected to be 10.5 billion, and in 2100 14 billion.
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Figure 8.27
Figure 8.27. What Fuels Provide the World’s Energy?
Line graph showing an increase in world energy consumption. The y-axis is labeled Energy, 1000 TWh per year. It is marked in increments of five and is labeled from zero to 20. The x-axis is labeled Year and is marked in 10-year increments from 1970 to 2010. The types of energy used from most to least are: Oil, Coal, Natural Gas, Hydro, Nuclear, and Other Renewable.
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Figure 8.28
Figure 8.28. Relationships of DCIs in Chemistry, including High School and Middle Grades Content
This is a complex diagram depicting the relationships of content that is covered in Middle Grades and High School.
There are some DCIs that are covered in Middle Grades and some that are covered and/or extended in High School.
In Middle Grades the concepts are:
Chemical reactions, Energy, Systems, Atoms, Molecules, Structure, Speed, State, Temperature, Properties, Density, Melting point, Boiling point, Solubility, Flammability.
In high school the concepts are:
Properties, Vapor pressure, Surface tension, Electrical forces, Bonds, Neutrons, Protons, Electrons, Patterns, Energy levels, Periodic table, Rate, Equilibrium, Concentration
This graphic organizer starts with chemical reactions and Energy and Systems in the middle. It shows relationships between concepts with arrows.
Between chemical reactions and energy is change. From change there is “Substances have properties like density, melting point, boiling points, solubility, flammability, vapor pressure (HS) and surface tension (HS)”.
Change also points to molecules and structures. Off of molecules is “are constantly moving at varying speed influences state. Speed points back up to Energy.
(HS) Periodic Table arranged by patterns in protons and electrons and arranged in energy levels/atoms are made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons.
Atoms form bonds to create molecules, which have structure.
Atoms are made up of Neutrons, Protons, and Electrons.
Temperature affects (HS) rate, equilibrium, and concentration.
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Figure 8.29
Figure 8.29. Collisions Occur in a Variety of Contexts
Mountains and car crashes involve collisions whose movement and forces can be modeled in computer simulations (bottom).
This is a picture of two different types of collisions. On the left is a picture of a mountain; just below it is a computer simulation of the forces that created the mountain. On the right is a picture of a car being crash tested by crashing it into a wall. Just below is the computer simulation of the forces that deformed the car.
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Figure 8.30
Figure 8.30. Engineering Solutions to an Egg Drop Challenge
A series of six photographs depicting student-designed vehicles to keep an egg from breaking in a fall. The upper left shows an egg encased in a plastic bag with packing 'peanuts.' The top middle shows a cup suspended in a frame of straws. The upper right is similar except that it uses popsicle sticks for the frame. The lower left is a cardboard box with balloons attached to the top. The bottom middle has a balloon with plastic bags taped to it. The bottom right includes more balloons surrounding a plastic bag with packing peanuts.
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Figure 8.31
Figure 8.31. Real World Engineering Applications of Momentum-Impulse Connections
A series of five illustrations: (a) an automobile air bag; (b) automobile passenger compartment with crumple zones in the front and rear; (c) a cross section of a helmet with various layers labeled: Rigid outer shell; face shield; comfort/fit padding on the interior; and the impact-absorbing liner; (d) a baseball catcher’s mitt; and (e) a parachute.
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Figure 8.32
Figure 8.32. Many Physical Processes Follow the Inverse Square Law
This is a four-column table; the first column lists the phenomenon, the second is titled 1r, the third 2r, and the fourth 3r. The first row: radiation; 1r: Iradiation = S over 4 Pi r squared; 2r: Iradiation = S over 16 Pi r squared; 3r: Iradiation = S over 36 Pi r squared. The second row: sound: 1r: Isound = P over 4 Pi r squared; 2r: Isound = P over 16 Pi r squared; 3r: Isound = P over 36 Pi r squared; The third row: illumination: 1r: E = I over 4 Pi r squared; 2r: E = I over 16 Pi r squared; 3r: E = I over 36 Pi r squared; The fourth row: electrostatics. 1r: Fe = k times the quantity Q1 times Q2 over r squared; 2r: Fe = k times the quantity Q1 times Q2 over 4 r squared; 3r: Fe = k times the quantity Q1 times Q2 over 9 r squared; The fifth row: gravity. 1r: Fe = k times the quantity m1 times m2 over r squared; 2r: Fe = k times the quantity m1 times m2 over 4 r squared; 3r: Fe = k times the quantity m1 times m2 over 9 r squared. Under this table is a 3-dimensional perspective drawing of area increasing proportionally to the distance from an object: at 1 radius the area of a square is one square unit; at 2 radii the area is 4 square units and at 3 radii the area is 9 square units.
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Figure 8.33
Figure 8.33. Magnetic Fields and Electric Currants
Five illustrations in two rows. The first row is titled Flowing Current Induces a Magnetic Field. Figure (a) Øersted’s experiment illustrates that an electric current generates a magnetic field; (b) a compass wrapped in wire through which an electric current flows; and (c) a circle of six compasses surrounding a wire carrying electric current – the wire is perpendicular to the plane the compasses are on. The second row is titled Magnet moving relative to a wire induces a current. Figure (d) shows a horseshoe magnet with a wire across its poles. The wire is attached to a galvanometer with its needle pinned to the right side. A person’s hand is moving the wire through the magnetic field. And (e) a bar magnet with wire wrapped around the north pole, attached to a galvanometer with its needle pinned to the right side. The magnet is moving in and out of the loops of wire.
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Figure 8.34
Figure 8.34. Screenshot of an App Tracking a Student’s Movement
Information at the top of the screen: Avatar of the user. Button “Go to Flybys” 4:59 PM on Monday, March 23, 2015. Memorial bench above Wilson Canyon. Button: “Add a description.” 10.6 km Distance; 1:04:46 (Moving Time); 444m (Elevation); 203 W (Estimated Avg Power); 790 kJ (Energy Output). Speed Avg 9.9 km/h (Max 45.7 km/h); Calories 881; Elaped time 1:30:09. Button “Show Less.” Device: Strava iPhone App; Bike: Gary Fisher Cake Deluxe. Below this information is a topographic map of the local area indicating a mountainous region with a lake. At the foot of the mountain is perhaps part of a town with street names. The trip is shown in red winding through the mountains. Button “Terrain Map” with navigation arrows to move the map view. On the upper left of the map is a button to get a street view and to increase or decrease the zoom. At the bottom of the map are tabs: ”Map data ©2015 Google |Terms of Use | Report a Map Error.” Under the map is a graph of elevation over distance. The y-axis has no label but has marks for 500 m on the bottom to 900 m on the top in 100-m increments. The x-axis also has no label but is marked 0.0 km on the left to 10 km on the right, in 1-km increments. The histogram is a slow but steady climb from 500 m to about 900 m halfway through and back down to zero over the 11 km.
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Figure 8.35
Figure 8.35. Examples of Rube Goldberg Machines
Two examples of Rube Goldberg machines. The first is titled Self-Operating Napkin. “As you raise spoon of soup (A) to your mouth it pulls string (B) thereby jerking ladle (C), which throws cracker (D) past parrot (E). Parrot jumps after cracker and perch (F) tilts, upsetting seeds (G) into pail (H). Extra weight in pail pulls cord (I) which opens and lights automatic cigar lighter (J), setting off sky-rocket (K), which causes sickle (L) to cut string (M) and allow pendulum with attached napkin to swing back and forth thereby wiping off your chin. After the meal, substitute a harmonica for the napkin and you’ll be able to entertain the guests with a little music.”
The second example is an interactive floor map of a filming set for a music video titled “This Too Shall Pass.” Each station is numbered one through 20. "This Too Shall Pass" video features a four-minute, apparentone-shot sequence of the song being played in time to the actions of a giantRube Goldberg machinebuilt in a two-story warehouse from over 700 household objects, traversing an estimated half-mile course.As the song and machine operate, the members of the band are seen singing alongside the machine, with the members being shot at bypaint gunsat the song's finale. Parts of the machine are synchronized in time with the music; in one instance, glasses of water are used to repeat part of the song's melody in the fashion of aglass harp. One part of the machine shows the "Here It Goes Again" video on a television before it is smashed by the machine.
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Figure 8.36
Figure 8.36. Model of Energy Conversion within the Earth System
A complicated flow chart that shows how energy from the Sun ends up as Electrical energy. Sun (thermonuclear) – photon emission – light (electromagnetic) – photoelectric cell – electricity (electric) – lighting (electromagnetic); tools (mechanical); speakers (sound); electrolysis (chemical); communication (electric); motor (mechanical); heating (thermal); pump (grav. pot.). Back to light (electromagnetic) – absorption – warm water (thermal) – evaporation - vapor (thermal) – precipitation – rain (mechanical) – stream flow – dam/reservoir (grav potential) penstock – falling water (mechanical) – turbine – generator (mechanical) – generator – electricity. Back to light from the Sun again – photosynthesis – Plant-sugars (chemical) – respiration – ATP (chemical) muscle contraction (motion (mechanical) rotation – generator (mechanical) generator – electricity (electric). Back to Plant-sugars (chemical) – heat and pressure – fossil fuels (chemical) fossil fuel combustion – heat (thermal) – boiler – steam (thermal) – turbine – generator (mechanical). Back to heat (thermal) – internal combustion engine – motion (mechanical) – rotation – generator (mechanical) – generator – electricity. Back to Plant-sugars (chemical) – biomass combustion – heat (thermal) – (same path to electricity). Back to light from the Sun – solar concentrator – steam (thermal) – turbine – generator (mechanical) – generator – electricity. Light – atmospheric absorption – heat-air (thermal) – pressure differential – wind (mechanical) – windmill – generator – electricity.
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Figure 8.37
Figure 8.37. Example of Online Simulation of Energy Conversion
In this online simulation the student has chosen mechanical energy from a running water faucet. The other source choices are solar, steam, or bicycle. The water turns a wheel that generates electrical energy that heats water (thermal energy) in a container shown with an analog thermometer reading near the top. The water faucet has a slider control that is set to the far right; the stream of water is full. On the right side of the screen there is a box checked next to “Energy Symbols”; just under that box is another box with a key to color-coded “Forms of Energy” – gray means mechanical; blue means electrical; red means thermal; yellow means light; and green means chemical. The flowing water is marked with mechanical energy as is the wheel it turns. The electrical wire going to the water container is marked as electrical energy and the heated water is marked with thermal energy. At the bottom of the screen are the choices for the source of the energy: water faucet, Sun, teakettle, and bicycle. The energy converter choice: a wheel or a solar cell. The end product: heated water, an incandescent light bulb, or a compact fluorescent light bulb. To the right of that is a “Reset All” button.
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Figure 8.38
Figure 8.38. A Simplified View of the Engineering Design Process
Three shapes linked in a circle: Define - Attend to a broad range of considerations in criteria and constraints for problems of social and global significance. Develop Solutions - Break a major problem into smaller problems that can be solved separately. Optimize - Prioritize criteria, consider trade-offs, and assess social and environmental impacts as a complex solution is tested and refined.
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Figure 8.39
Figure 8.39. Sample Designs of a Solar Oven
This is a diagram of four different types of solar cookers. The first is a box with a metal rod inserted through marshmallows and the inside of the box is curved with aluminum foil. Another cooker is a polythene bag black painted sufuria (Swahili for cooking pot), carton box, and it is lined with aluminum foil. The next one is a cone-shaped cooker with a canister inside the cone and the cone reflects focused light onto the canister. The last is a closed box with a glass panel on the bottom, light reflects off the ground and into the cookers glass panel.
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Figure 8.40
Figure 8.40. Models of Nuclear Processes in Atoms
Two panels are presented. On the left, a drawing of fission on top and fusion on the bottom. In the fission drawing, a neutron comes towards a large nucleus of uranium-235 (indicated by lots of red and grey spheres clumped together). The nucleus breaks into two pieces, barium-139 and krypton-95, while two neutrons fly away. A big orange crashing icon indicates that energy is released. In the fusion diagram, a hydrogen and deuterium atom meet to temporarily form a large unstable nucleus which releases a huge amount of energy as a helium nucleus and a neutron continue. On the right, A drawing of alpha decay on the top and beta decay on the bottom. In alpha decay, a large unstable nucleus (indicated by a clump of lots of red and grey spheres) decays into a smaller, more stable nucleus and gives off a helium atom (also called an 'alpha particle', indicated by two red spheres and two grey spheres clumped together). In beta decay, there are two options. On the top, a smaller clump of red and grey spheres indicating a carbon-14 nucleus decays via beta-minus into a very similar nucleus labeled nitrogen-14. The only difference is that one red sphere is now grey. An anti-neutrino and electron also get released (indicated by small spheres). In beta-plus decay, a carbon-10 nucleus changes into a boron-10 nucleus. Again, the clumps are very similar except that one of the grey spheres has changed into a positive red sphere. A small neutrino and positron also get released.
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Figure 8.41
Figure 8.41. Investigating Magnetic Fields
Three panels: the first shows compass needles in relation to a magnet. The magnet is shown with the N pole on the left. Compass needles are shown in a clockwise circular series. The first needle is next to the N pole and points northwest. The needles circle around the magnet; just above the magnet the needle is pointing east until it gets to the S pole where the needle is pointing southwest. There are lines drawn around the magnet indicating the magnetic field. The second panel shows how iron filings are impacted by the same type of bar magnet: they orient themselves along the lines of the magnetic field shown in the first panel. The third panel appears to be a screen shot taken on a mobile device. It is a graph titled Magnetic Field in Micro Teslas. There is a picture of a wrench next to the title. On the y-axis is Field Strength and it ranges from 80 to 240 in 40-unit increments. The x-axis is labeled Time in Seconds and ranges from -8 to zero (the image is cutoff here). The graph centers on 160 for most of the time but dips sharply at about -3 seconds to just below 120, then quickly goes back up to about 160. Along the bottom of the screen shot are the following icons: Programs; Source; Console; Graphics (selected); and Stack.
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Figure 8.42
Figure 8.42. The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Chart of the Electromagnetic Spectrum: Shows the bands of the spectrum with familiar objects for size reference. There are four parallel number lines. The first one is labeled wavelength lambda (m) and ranges from 10 to the third power (the size of a football field on the left to 10 to the negative 12, the size of subatomic particles on the right. The second number line is labeled wavenumber (cm to the negative one). The ranges from 10 to the negative five on the left to 10 to the 10 on the right. The third number line is labeled electron volt (eV). It ranges from 10 to the negative nine on the left to 10 to the six on the right. The fourth number line is labeled frequency (Hz). It ranges from 10 to the five on the left to 10 to the 21 on the right. For size reference, there are pictures of familiar items across the top of the four number lines. In order from left to right they are a football field, man's height, baseball, paperclip thickness, paper thickness, cells, bacteria, viruses, water molecule, atom, and subatomic particles. Under the four number lines are the bands of the spectrum from left to right: Radio spectrum including Broadcast and Wireless, Microwave, Terahertz, Infrared (including far IR, Mid IR, Near IR), Visible wavelengths (nm) shows the spectrum of color ROYGBIV, Ultraviolet (including Near UV and Extreme UV), X-Ray (Soft X-ray and Hard X-ray), Gamma. Under these bands are more pictures of familiar objects that utilize the particular wavelength including from left to right: radio, sound waves, ultrasound, TV, microwave, wireless router, radar, airport screening, fiber telecom, mobile phone, remote control, night vision, visible light, dental curing, suntan, baggage screen, medical x-ray, crystallography, PET imaging, and cosmic ray observations.
At the bottom of the images appears lambda = 3 times 10 to the 8/frequency = 1/(wn*100)=1.24 times 10 to the negative 6/eV.
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Figure 8.43
Figure 8.43. Relationship of DCIs in Physics including High School and Middle Grades Content
This is a conceptual flow of NGSS Physics and how they connect from concepts like Energy Motion Force Waves. This diagram shows how the Middle School Disciplinary Core Ideas are connected to the High School Disciplinary Core Ideas and how they relate across the two grade spans.
Middle grades concepts are:
Energy, Systems, Velocity, Waves, Amplitude, Medium, Transmit, Reflect, Absorb, Electromagnetic radiation, Light, Mechanical waves, Sound, Water waves, Information, Digital, Analog, Motion, Kinetic, energy, Potential energy, Thermal, Force mass, Equal and opposite, Strength, Direction, At a distance, By contact, Fields, Relative position of objects, Attract , Repel.
High School Concepts are added:
Energy converted between different forms
Waves – frequency, wavelength, wave speed
Seismic waves
Electromagnetic radiation – particle and/or wave
Potential energy now includes nuclear (fission and fusion)
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Figure 8.44
Figure 8.44. Conceptual Flow of Instructional Segments in High School Earth and Space Sciences Course
Oil and Gas (CO2) leads to Climate Change (precipitation) that leads to both Water and Farming and Mountains Valleys and Coasts. Those two instructional segments along with Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics (mountain building) lead to Urban Geology (Human Impacts), which leads to (wonder) Star Stuff (Spectra), which leads to Motion in the Universe. Oil and Gas has a link to Motion in the Universe through Composition of Earth Materials. Climate Change has a link to Star Stuff through Energy input.
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Figure 8.45
Figure 8.45. CO2 and Earth’s Atmosphere Over Time
This is a double-line graph. The y-axis is labeled percent in atmosphere and ranges from zero to 50 in increments of 10. The x-axis is labeled Billions of years ago and ranges from 4.5 on the left to zero (now) on the right in 0.5 billion-year increments. The key is at the top of the graph. CO2 is represented by a thinner blue line and O2 is represented by a thicker green line. Both gases begin at zero when Earth forms more than 4.5 billion years ago. As life evolves about 3.9 billion years ago, O2 stays near zero as CO2 rises to its peak about 3.3 billion years ago when photosynthesis first happened (cyanobacteria), then steadily declines to near zero now. CO2 is near zero by two billion years ago when there is a boom in photosynthesis. O2 begins to rise about 2.5 billion years ago; and then O2 rose sharply beginning about 0.6 billion years ago when land plants evolved, to a peak of about 33% about 0.4 billion years ago. Oxygen sharply declined quickly to about 20% now. A note in the graph reads: CO2 decreases as O2 increases.
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Figure 8.46
Figure 8.46. The Carbon Cycle
Drawing of a river flowing to the ocean. On the right bank, there are many plants, a few small houses, rocks, and sand. There are palm trees with the notation ‘Respiration’ within an arrow pointing up to 120 Gt/year, and ‘Photosynthesis’ within an arrow pointing down to 122.5 Gt/Year. This side is labeled Land Biomass. On the river, there is an arrow pointing up with ‘Escapes’ pointing to 77.5 Gt/Year and an arrow pointing down with ‘Dissolves’ pointing to 80 Gt/Year. The water is labeled ‘Ocean.’ The air is labeled ‘Atmosphere.’ On the left bank are factories, a corn field with a tractor, and cows grazing. The factories have smoke coming out of them. This side is labeled ‘Human Activities.’ There is an arrow pointing up to nine Gt/Year. On the tractor there is an arrow pointing up to one Gt/Year. Fossil Fuels are pictured underground. ‘Changes to Ecosystem’ just under the farming activities. There is a jet in the sky over the factories. There is a note in the lower left corner: Units are gigatons of carbon per year. One gigaton – one billion tons.
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Figure 8.47
Figure 8.47. Energy Flow in the Earth System
The Earth System is represented by a large rectangle at the bottom of the image with the Earth’s surface at the top of that box. The Sun is represented by a yellow circle above the Earth and Outer Space is represented by a grey box also above the Earth. From the Sun, there are arrows pointing to Earth and then reflected back to outer space. “Visible light and short wave infrared (IR) from the Sun radiates to planet Earth.” Along the reflection arrow “About one third of sunlight does not heat the Earth system.” On the surface of the Earth with a red arrow pointing up: “Earth’s surface heats the atmosphere by conduction and by radiating long wave infrared that is absorbed by greenhouse gases.” Also on the surface of the Earth with a red arrow pointing both up and down: “Greenhouse gases radiate long wave infrared within atmosphere, back to surface, and to outer space.” There is a long red arrow pointing to outer space: “Some long wavelength IR radiates to outer space without being absorbed in atmosphere.” Just under the surface of the Earth is a double-headed horizontal arrow: “Winds and ocean currents move heat energy within the Earth system from equatorial regions toward the poles.” At the bottom of the image: “Most of the absorption of light energy happens at Earth’s surface. Absorbed light energy is transferred to heat energy. Areas nearer to the equator absorb much more sunlight and are much warmer than areas nearer the poles.”
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Figure 8.48
Figure 8.48. A Reinforcing Feedback in Earth’s Climate
An upward spiral changing in color from grey at the bottom to red to black at the top. Noted on the diagram Temperature increases (one up arrow) leads to Melting Ice (one up arrow), leads to Absorption of Sunlight (one up arrow), leads to increase in Temperature (two up arrows), leads to Melting Ice (two up arrows), leads to Absorption of Sunlight (two up arrows), leads to increase in Temperature (three up arrows), leads to Melting Ice (three up arrows), leads to Absorption of Sunlight (three up arrows), leads to increase in Temperature (four up arrows).
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Figure 8.49
Figure 8.49. A Counterbalancing Feedback in Earth’s Climate System
Beginning at the bottom left: Temperature increase leads to Fusion increase, leads to Star expands, leads to Temperature decrease, leads to Fusion decrease, leads to Star contracts (Gravity), leads to Temperature increase, and around again.
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Figure 8.50
Figure 8.50. Temperature and Carbon Dioxide Over the Last 800,000 Years
Information from ice core records of temperature and CO2 concentration are graphed together. The measurements of temperature and carbon dioxide appear to follow the same pattern of increase and decrease over the last 800,000 years until present day when the concentration of CO2 rises to 400 parts per million; in the past the high concentration only reached 300 parts per million.
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Figure 8.51
Figure 8.51. Two Representations of the Same Data Set by Different Sources
Two graphs are shown. On the left is a graph from a newspaper (The Weekly Star [fictitious]). The title is Graph showing tenths of a degree above and below 14C world average. The y-axis is marked from zero to .9 in increments of .1. The x-axis is marked in years from 1997 to 2012. The graph has many ups and downs but overall remains horizontal. The author highlights 1997 at .5 degrees Celsius and 2012 also at .5 degrees Celsius. The graph on the right compiled by NASA’s Earth Observatory, shows data from four different sources: NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies, Met Office Hadley Centre/Climatic Research Unit, NOAA National Climatic Data Center, and Japanese Meteorological Agency. All four lines of data coincide very closely. The y-axis is labeled Temperature Anomaly (degrees Celsius) and ranges from -0.75 to +0.50 in increments of 0.25. The x-axis is marked in years from 1880 to 2000 in 20-year increments. This graph has many ups and downs but trend upward starting around 1980.
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Figure 8.52
Figure 8.52. Cause and Effect Chains Illustrate How Human Activities Affect Natural Systems
This is a diagram on global warming and climate change. Burning fossil fuels leads to more CO2 in the atmosphere. This leads to more CO2 in the Ocean, which leads to more hydrogen and ocean acidification. More CO2 in the atmosphere also leads to Higher Air and Ocean Temperatures, which leads sea level rise and changing rain patterns.
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Figure 8.53
8.53. Forces That Shape Earth’s Surface: Internal Versus External and Constructive Versus Destructive
Cross section of Earth showing Sea, Land, and a Mountain. Internal processes are shown as circular arrows under the surface. Constructive Forces are shown building up the mountain. Destructive forces (rain) are shown eroding the mountain. These are labeled as Surface Processes.
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Figure 8.54
Figure 8.54. Table Mountain Near Jamestown, California
This figure is comprised of five panels showing the erosion of rock over nine million years. The first panel is labeled Le Conte’s sketch. There is a sketch of Table Mountain with a dotted line swooping under the flat top of the mountain showing previous levels of rock. The second, third, and fourth panels are all labeled Le Conte’s Mental Model. Time One shows an ancient river channel between two hills. Time Two shows the same channel but now that channel is filled with lava forming an ancient valley floor. Time Three shows how the mountain looks today with the softer valley rock eroded away and the hard volcanic rock remaining to form a solid block on top of the ancient valley floor. The fifth panel show a photograph of Table Mountain Showing how much rock has eroded in nine million years. The top of the mountain is labeled ancient valley floor and the base of the mountain is labeled current valley floor.
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Figure 8.55
Figure 8.55. Balancing Feedback in Erosion
Constructive Forces Plate motions; Destructive Forces shows a counter-balancing feedback loop: Mountains with an upward-pointing arrow; Slopes Steepness with an upward-pointing arrow; Erosion with an upward-pointing arrow; Mountains with a downward-pointing arrow; Slope steepness with a downward-pointing arrow; Erosion with a downward-pointing arrow; and full circle back to Mountains with an upward-pointing arrow.
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Figure 8.56
Figure 8.56. Coastal Erosion in Pacifica
This figure is comprised of four photographs of the same apartment building taken from the same vantage point over time. The first is labeled 2002, and the second 2008. This pair of photos is captioned Very little erosion six years. The third photo is labeled 2009, the fourth 2010. This pair is captioned Lots of erosion one year! The cliff that supports the building has eroded greatly in the fourth photo and has nearly reached the building.
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Figure 8.57
Figure 8.57. Projected Decreases to California’s Snowpack
A series of three color-coded maps showing California’s snow water equivalent as of April 1. The first map is the historical average from 1961 to 1990. A notation on the map reads 100% remaining. The second map is titled “Lower Warming Range Drier Climate” and the note reads 40% remaining. The third map is titled “Medium Warming Range Drier Climate” and the note reads 20% remaining. The color key is just below the maps. The key is titled “April 1 snow water equivalent (inches).” The numbers range from zero to 45; zero inches is white (most of the map of California shows white); then the colors range from pink to red to yellow to green to light blue to dark blue between about 35 and 45 inches. In the first map each area of snow is ringed in red/pink and the colors move to green and blue the higher the elevation. There are a few spots of dark blue remaining. The snow pack appears to extend quite a bit further along the Sierras than the projections in the other two maps. The second map shows a smaller snow area with much less water indicated by the colors; more red, no dark blue. The third map show an even smaller snowpack remaining with less water content indicated by the mostly red and yellow. At the bottom of the figure is a red, right-facing arrow that reads “More Warming = Less water in the snowpack.”
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Figure 8.58
Figure 8.58. Satellite Image of Atmospheric Water Vapor Reveals an Atmospheric River
A color-coded map centered on the Pacific Ocean with the west coast of the United States to the right and China to the left. The map is marked along the y-axis with Latitude from five degrees N to 45 degrees N in 10-degree increments. It is also marked along the x-axis with Longitude from 130 degrees E to 110 degrees east in 20-degree increments. The color key is below the map: “Total water vapor in the atmospheric column (cm). The key ranges from one to seven; at one it is deep blue; two is green; three is yellow green; four is orange; five is red; six is indigo; and seven is violet. The map shows a line of red/orange streaming from west to east and landing on the central coast of California. This line is labeled “Atmospheric River.” Where it lands on California, a bubble reads “19 inches rain in 24 hours.” A note in the upper left corner indicates this satellite image was taken the afternoon of October 13, 2009.
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Figure 8.59
Figure 8.59. Direct and Indirect Earthquake Impacts
This figure is comprised of eight photographs divided into Direct Impacts and Indirect Impacts and Geosphere and Anthrosphere. Under Direct Impacts in the Geosphere are ground shaking which leads to Liquefaction (Indirect Impact) and Fault Rupture, which leads to Landslides (Indirect Impact). Under Indirect Impacts (all are in the anthrosphere) are fire, Building contents, Structure collapse; Economic Impact (businesses closed).
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Figure 8.60
Figure 8.60. Present-Day Plate Motions
Outline map of the world showing the boundaries of the tectonic plates. Arrows indicate the direction and velocity of the movement of the plates—a longer arrow indicates a greater velocity. The plate boundaries are color coded to indicate whether the boundary is convergent, transform, or divergent. The scale of the map is five millimeters equals 1000 kilometers. The scale of the arrows is one centimeter equals 50 millimeters per year. The west coast of North America has many arrows pointing northwest. Much of the coast of California is a transform boundary.
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Figure 8.61
Figure 8.61. Seafloor Age
This is a world map showing the age of the seafloor using color coding. This map shows newer rock forms along the plate boundaries. The world map is marked with latitude in degrees every 30 degrees both North and South. The continents are white. The age of the seafloor color key is at the bottom of the image; the key is titled Age of seafloor (millions of years), The key ranges from zero on the left to 280 million years on the right. The colors follow the order of color wavelength: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and purple. Red indicates the newest seafloor and purple the oldest. This map indicates the seafloor along the west coast of North America is young (red), and the East coast of North America is older (purple).
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Figure 8.62
Figure 8.62. Example System Model Linking Objects in the Built and Natural Environment
Five objects from a park are linked. The Sun (Natural) is linked to the Fountain (Built) through warming and evaporating the water. The Sun also heats up the pavement (Built) that people walk on to enjoy the fountain at the park. The Sun dries off the feathers of the duck (natural) that splashes in the fountain. The Sun helps trees (Natural) grow so that the duck can sit under the shade of the tree.
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Figure 8.63
Figure 8.63. Satellite Images Reveal Temperature Differences in Urban Areas
Two satellite images of different areas showing the heat differences caused by land use. On the left is a suburb with a Park, Freeway, and Stadium labeled. A note reads Suburbs with trees are 40 degrees cooler than downtown. The image on the right is of downtown. It has a note reading “Black rooftops are 10 to 20 degrees hotter than their surroundings. The color key (labeled “Surface Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit) is below the map and ranges from 40 degrees to 110 degrees on the left. The colors are purple at 40 degrees; blue at about 50, green at 60, yellow at 70, orange at 80, red at 90 degrees; and white above 110 degrees. The majority of each map is red, although in the suburb picture on the left the trees are evident with blue/green coloration. In the Downtown picture there is more white showing particularly on top of buildings.
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Figure 8.64
Figure 8.64. Aerial Photographs Around a Local High School Show Changes Over Time
Aerial images compare farmland in 1947 and the same map in 2010, and reveals that it is now covered in buildings and no farmland is present.
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Figure 8.65
Figure 8.65. Two Competing Designs for a City Block by Professional Design Companies
Two different designs for a space are shown. The one on the left has many trees, a grassy area, and light-colored hard scape. The building itself has a shade structure on the top and trees and plants on the building. The image on the right also has light-colored hardscape, one large tree, and wooden planters/benches in the foreground.
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Figure 8.66
Figure 8.66. Forecasts of Extreme Heat Days for Northridge, CA
Screenshot of a tool to forecast Extreme Heat Days by Year. At the top is the title “Temperature: Extreme Heat Tool.” There is a button to share the forecast in the upper right corner. On the next line there is a search box; a choice of Low or High Emissions Scenario; tabs: About the tool, Chart (selected), Disclaimer. On the left is a map of the area being forecasted: Northridge, CA. Then taking up most of the screen is the chart: “Timing of Extreme Heat Days by Year” appears to be a selection from a dropdown menu. Next to that is a button that reads “Options.” On the chart, the y-axis is labeled with months from April at the bottom to October at the top. The x-axis labeled Annual timestep from 1950 to 2099 in 10-year increments. At the bottom of the graph “Historical Avg. # Extreme Heat Days: Four (information button) Extreme Heat Day Threshold: 96 degrees Fahrenheit (information button) All values based on modeled data (information button).” There is a color key within the graph: from top to bottom: red means 114-120; orange means 108-114; orange-yellow means 102-108; and yellow means 96-102 degrees Fahrenheit. The graph is a scatter plot of those colors. From 1950 through around 1990, there are very few dots recorded and only a few red dots. After 1990 the yellow dots are more frequent and we see more dots before and after the typical hot summer months. Around 2050 the number of red/orange dots increases substantially and just about every day is at least yellow.
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Figure 8.67
Figure 8.67. Color Spectrum of Our Sun
This is a graph of the intensity of light at each wavelength. The y-axis is labeled Spectral Irradiance (W/m2/nm) and ranges from zero to two in increments of one unit. The x-axis is labeled Wavelength (nm) and ranges from 400 to 700 in 100-unit increments. The height of each color indicates the intensity of light at that wavelength. The highest intensity is at about 490 nm and the lowest is at about 350 nm.
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Figure 8.68
Figure 8.68. Spectra of Six Different Stars
Chart shows data from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Power density (log scale)[no markers or units] is on the y-axis and wavelength is on the y-axis from 400 to 900 nm. The spectra of six stars are shown. On the highest line, hydrogen is identified in four different places; this identification appears in the top three lines. In the bottom three lines, magnesium (520 nm), sodium (590 nm), and calcium (880 nm) are identified along the spectrum. All six lines converge at about 900 nm.
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Figure 8.69
Figure 8.69. A Model of Absorption Lines
Description: A diagram shows light energy to less light energy remitted in a different direction and/or at a different wavelength as the electron returns to ground state.
Information on top of diagram: "Light energy to less light energy to energy re-emitted in a different direction and/or at a different wavelength as electron returns to ground states."
This information at bottom of diagram: "Potential energy as excited electron occupies a higher energy orbital."
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Figure 8.70
Figure 8.70. Counterbalancing Feedback in the Stars
Beginning at the bottom left: Temperature increase leads to Fusion increase, leads to Star expands, leads to Temperature decrease, leads to Fusion decrease, leads to Star contracts (Gravity), leads to Temperature increase, and around again.
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Figure 8.71
Figure 8.71. How Does Star Brightness Depend on Temperature?
Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram: Absolute Magnitude on the y-axis, ranging from zero at the top of the diagram to 30 at the x-axis in increments of five units. Temperature is on the x-axis ranging from 10,000 on the left to zero on the right. The Hertzsprung–Russell diagram is a scatter plot of stars showing the relationship between the stars' absolute magnitudes or luminosities versus their spectral classifications or effective temperatures. In general the higher the magnitude the lower the temperature.
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Figure 8.72
Figure 8.72. Energy Transfer from the Sun to the Earth
A diagram of the sun in yellow (red circle is the core, fusion) emitting radiation (Orange layer around the core). Another layer of the Sun is yellow where convection is shown and labeled Envelope. The Visible surface is a thin line around the yellow layer. Outside of the surface is the atmosphere where squiggly lines show radiation emanating from the Sun toward Earth. These lines are labeled Thermal Radiation (black body). Just outside the atmosphere is labeled Spectral Absorption.
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Figure 8.73
Figure 8.73. Evidence for the Big Bang
Three images comprise the figure. The first in the upper left is titled Redshift versus Distance of Stellar Spectra. This is a dot graph; on the y-axis is speed (km/s), it ranges from zero to 40,000 units in 10,000-unit increments; and on the x-axis is the Distance from Earth in Millions of Light Years, it ranges from zero to 150 in 30-unit increments. Three stars are chosen and their spectra are shown, and as the stars get farther from earth the spectra shift a bit to the right. The second image in the upper right is titled Relative abundance of different elements. This is a line graph: the y-axis is labeled Relative abundance (percent of Sun's mass, log scale) (ranges from 10 to the negative eight to 75 percent), the x-axis is labeled Atomic number (ranges from zero to 80 in 20-unit increments). Hydrogen is labeled as 75 percent, Helium at 23 percent, Beryllium at 10 to the negative eight percent, and Iron at about 0.5 percent. The third image is titled Cosmic Microwave Background. Tiny variations in the temperature of the early universe in different regions of the sky. The temperature of the early sky is depicted with color coding ranging from dark blue at -0.0002 K to dark red at +0.0002 K. The average is labeled at 2.2725 K and is light blue-green.
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Figure 8.74
Figure 8.74. Relationship of DCIs in Earth and Space Science, Including High School and Middle Grades Content
The main ideas are Earth’s Place in the Universe, hydrosphere geosphere, anthrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere. With these main ideas, there are hundreds of concepts connected to these main ideas. The purpose of this graphic is to show that Earth’s Place in the Universe, hydrosphere, geosphere, anthrosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere are the backbone of the High School Four Course Earth and Space Science.
Middle School Content:
The hydrosphere is connected to the atmosphere via to the water cycle.
The atmosphere is connected to the biosphere via life sciences.
The biosphere is connected to the anthrosphere via life sciences.
The anthrosphere is connected to the geosphere through hazards and resources.
The geosphere is connected to the hydrosphere via weathering and erosion.
Resources include water energy and minerals-water relates back to hydrosphere.
The study of resources enables one to evaluate alternatives.
Growing population and standard of living affect the consumption of resources.
One can use computer simulations to analyze the data of consumption of resources.
When people forecast hazards and provide a detailed explanation of what can occur it can minimize the effect on the anthrosphere.
Resources are distributed unevenly due to plate tectonics, weathering, and erosion.
Surface features are shaped by weathering and erosion.
Strata can contain fossils in the biosphere.
Strata are deposited as part of the rock cycle.
Strata can contain resources.
Strata establish the basis of the geologic timescale.
Strata provide evidence of past fossils, continent shape, and plate motions.
Plate motions slowly change surface features.
Plate tectonics is an explanation of plate motions.
Climate is long-term patterns in weather conditions determined by interactions between air masses.
Climate is changing.
Solar input leads to unequal heating.
Unequal heating and Earth’s rotation cause patterns in atmospheric circulation and ocean circulation.
Atmospheric circulation moves air masses.
Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation determine climate.
Unequal heating gives rise to convection.
Earth’s Place in the Universe
Gravity causes convection.
Energy flows cause convection.
Gravity maintains orbits.
Orbits result in seasons and tilt affects a location’s solar input.
Predictable movements result in cyclic patterns, including phases of the moon, eclipses, and seasons.
Galaxies and asteroids have predicable movements.
Planets have internal structure and surface features that vary in scale and are shapes by weathering and erosion.
High School Content:
Galaxies and asteroids all have similar compositions and provide clues about Earth’s formation and early history.
Plate motions explain ages of crustal rocks determined by radiometric dating.
They help constrain Earths formation and early history.
Plate motion slowly change the ocean floor features.
Similar compositions of elements can be identified by spectra.
Elements created largely by fusion fuels the sun and it emits radiation.
This radiation arrive at the Earth as solar input and comes in many color of spectra.
Spectra provides evidence for the Big Bang and the Big Bang is responsible for predictable movements.
Energy such as fossil fuels release carbon dioxide and moves through the carbon cycle.
Plants absorb carbon dioxide.
Solar input is part of the Earth’s energy balance.
Climate is change caused by change in the energy balance.
Carbon dioxide dramatically change energy balance.
Technology can reduce impact of energy balance.
Climate models can predict the impact of energy balance.Return to Chapter 8 (PDF)